What Is a Covalent Bond in Chemistry?

A covalent bond in chemistry is a chemical link between two atoms or ions in which the electron pairs are shared between them. A covalent bond may also be termed a molecular bond. Covalent bonds form between two nonmetal atoms with identical or relatively close electronegativity values. This type of bond may also be found in other chemical species, such as radicals and macromolecules. The term "covalent bond" first came into use in 1939, although Irving Langmuir introduced the term "covalence" in 1919 to describe the number of electron pairs shared by neighboring atoms.

The electron pairs that participate in a covalent bond are called bonding pairs or shared pairs. Typically, sharing bonding pairs allows each atom to achieve a stable outer electron shell, similar to that seen in noble gas atoms.

Polar and Nonpolar Covalent Bonds

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Bonds Definition in Chemistry

By Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D.

Two important types of covalent bonds are nonpolar or pure covalent bonds and polar covalent bonds. Nonpolar bonds occur when atoms equally share electron pairs. Since only identical atoms (having the same electronegativity) truly engage in equal sharing, the definition is expanded to include covalent bonding between any atoms with an electronegativity difference less than 0.4. Examples of molecules with nonpolar bonds are H₂, N₂, and CH₄.

As the electronegativity difference increases, the electron pair in a bond is more closely associated with one nucleus than the other. If the electronegativity difference is between 0.4 and 1.7, the bond is polar. If the electronegativity difference is greater than 1.7, the bond is ionic.

Covalent Bond Examples

There is a covalent bond between the oxygen and each hydrogen in a water molecule (H₂O). Each of the covalent bonds contains two electrons, one from a hydrogen atom and one from the oxygen atom. Both atoms share the electrons.

A hydrogen molecule, H₂, consists of two hydrogen atoms joined by a covalent bond. Each hydrogen atom needs two electrons to achieve a stable outer electron shell. The pair of electrons is attracted to the positive charge of both atomic nuclei, holding the molecule together.

Phosphorus can form either PCl₃ or PCl₅. In both cases, the phosphorus and chlorine atoms are connected by covalent bonds. PCl₃ assumes the expected noble gas structure, in which the atoms achieve complete outer electron shells. Yet PCl₅ is also stable, so it's important to remember covalent bonds in chemistry don't always abide by the octet rule.